CONCRETENESS RATINGS ARE AFFECTED BY STIMULUS CONTEXT
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.19090/pp.2017.3.375-400Ključne reči:
concreteness effect, concreteness ratings, stimulus context, concrete words, abstract wordsApstrakt
The aim of this research was to establish whether and to what extent the stimulus context affected concreteness ratings. We hypothesized that concreteness ratings of concrete and abstract words would depend on concreteness range of the words that are presented to participants. We, therefore, presented three separate groups of participants with either a list of concrete nouns, a list of abstract nouns, or a joint list of both concrete and abstract nouns. All participants were given identical instructions and provided concreteness ratings on a seven-point scale. Our results revealed that while concrete nouns were always rated higher on the concreteness scale, the difference between average concreteness of concrete and abstract words was significantly higher when they were presented jointly compared to a situation when concrete and abstract words were rated separately. Additionally, we recorded the rating latencies. We found that participants were faster when rating words presented in a joint list of both concrete and abstract words, compared to rating either of them separately. Additionally, they were faster when rating concrete nouns compared to abstract nouns, with a tendency for this difference to be more pronounced in joint-list rating. Primarily, our results have practical implications for researchers who rely on large psycholinguistic databases to control for or match stimuli for concreteness, as we show that ratings collected in different norming studies might not be directly comparable. From a theoretical point of view, our results point to some differences between concrete and abstract words.
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Armstrong, L., & Marks, L. E. (1997). Differential effects of stimulus context on perceivedlength: Implications for the horizontal–vertical illusion. Perception & Psychophysics, 59, 1200–1213. doi:10.3758/BF03214208
Baird, J. C. (2014). Sensation and judgment: Complementarity theory of psychophysics. New York, NY: Psychology Press.
Balota, D. A., Yap, M. J., Hutchison, K. A., Cortese, M. J., Kessler, B., Loftis, B., . . . Treiman, R. (2007). The English lexicon project. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 445–459. doi:10.3758/BF03193014
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Barsalou, L. W. (1999). Perceptual symbol systems. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22, 577–660. doi:10.1017/S0140525X99002149
Barsalou, L. W. (2008). Grounding symbolic operations in the brain's modal systems. In G. R. Semin & E. R. Smith (Eds.), Embodied grounding: Social, cognitive, affective, and neuroscientific approaches (pp. 9–42). New York: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511805837.002
Barsalou, L. W., & Wiemer-Hastings, K. (2005). Situating abstract concepts. In D. Pecher & R. Zwaan (Eds.), Grounding cognition: The role of perception and action in memory, language, and thought (pp. 129–163). New York: Cambridge UniversityPress. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511499968.007
Bleasdale, F. A. (1987). Concreteness-dependent associative priming: Separate lexical organization for concrete and abstract words. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 13, 582–594. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.13.4.582
Borghi, A. M., Flumini, A., Cimatti, F., Marocco, D., & Scorolli, C. (2011). Manipulating objects and telling words: A study on concrete and abstract words acquisition. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 15. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00015
Bransford, J. D., & McCarrell, N. S. (1974). A sketch of a cognitive approach to comprehension: Some thoughts about understanding what it means to comprehend. In W. Weimer & D. Palermo (Eds.), Cognition and the symbolic processes (pp. 189–229). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
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Brysbaert, M., Stevens, M., De Deyne, S., Voorspoels, W., & Storms, G. (2014). Norms of age of acquisition and concreteness for 30000 Dutch words. Acta Psychologica, 150, 80–84. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2014.04.010
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Coltheart, M. (1981). The MRC psycholinguistic database. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 33A, 497–505. doi:10.1080/14640748108400805
Connell, L., & Lynott, D. (2012). Strength of perceptual experience predicts word processing performance better than concreteness or imageability. Cognition, 125, 452–465. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2012.07.010
Crutch, S. J., & Warrington, E. K. (2005). Abstract and concrete concepts have structurally different representational frameworks. Brain, 128, 615–627. doi:10.1093/brain/awh349
Dean, G. M., Dewhurst, S. A., Morris, P. E., & Whittaker, A. (2005). Selective interference with the use of visual images in the symbolic distance paradigm. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 31, 1043–1068. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.31.5.1043
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Ferrand, L., New, B., Brysbaert, M., Keuleers, E., Bonin, P., Méot, A., Augustinova, M., & Pallier, C. (2010). The French lexicon project: Lexical decision data for 38840 French words and 38840 pseudowords. Behavior Research Methods, 42, 488–496. doi:10.3758/BRM.42.2.488
Filipović Đurđević, D., Karapandžić, J., & Arsenijević Mijalković, J. (2016). Presentation modality interacts with the effect of visual perceptual strength on word processing. In S. Halupka-Rešetar, & S. Martínez-Ferreiro (Eds.), Studies in language and mind (pp. 161–185). Novi Sad, RS: Filozofski fakultet u Novom Sadu.
Filipović Đurđević, D., Popović Stijačić, M., & Karapandžić, J. (2016). A quest for sources of perceptual richness: Several candidates. In S. Halupka-Rešetar, & S. Martínez-Ferreiro (Eds.), Studies in language and mind (pp.187–238). Novi Sad, RS: Filozofski fakultet u Novom Sadu.
Fliessbach, K., Weis, S., Klaver, P., Elger, C. E., & Weber, B. (2006). The effect of word concreteness on recognition memory. Neuroimage, 32, 1413–1421. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.06.007
Fodor, J. A., & Pylyshyn, Z. W. (1988). Connectionism and cognitive architecture: A critical analysis. Cognition, 28, 3–71. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(88)90031-5
Granito, C., Scorolli, C., & Borghi, A. M. (2015). Naming a Lego world. The role of language in the acquisition of abstract concepts. PloSone, 10, e0114615. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0114615
James, C. T. (1975). The role of semantic information in lexical decisions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1, 130–136. doi:10.1037/0096-1523.1.2.130
Kieras, D. (1978). Beyond pictures and words: Alternative information-processing models for imagery effect in verbal memory. Psychological Bulletin, 85, 532–554. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.85.3.532
Kostić, Đ. (1999). Frekvencijski rečnik savremenog srpskog jezika. Tom I–VII. Beograd: Institut za eksperimentalnu fonetiku i patologiju govora i Laboratorija za eksperimentalnu psihologiju Filozofskog fakulteta.
Kounios, J., & Holcomb, P. J. (1994). Concreteness effects in semantic processing: ERP evidence supporting dual-coding theory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20, 804-823. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.20.4.804
Kuperman, V., Estes, Z., Brysbaert, M., & Warriner, A.B. (2014). Emotion and language:Valence and arousal affect word recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143, 1065–1081. doi:10.1037/a0035669
Kuperman, V., Stadthagen-Gonzalez, H., & Brysbaert,M. (2012). Age-of-acquisition ratingsfor 30 thousand English words. Behavior Research Methods, 44, 978–990. doi:10.3758/s13428-012-0210-4
Mandera, P., Keuleers, E., & Brysbaert, M. (2015). How useful are corpus-based methods for extrapolating psycholinguistic variables? Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68, 1623–1642. doi:10.1080/17470218.2014.988735
Mathôt, S., Schreij, D., & Theeuwes, J. (2012). OpenSesame: An open-source, graphical experiment builder for the social sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 44, 314–324. doi:10.3758/s13428-011-0168-7
Moyer, R. S. (1973). Comparing objects in memory: Evidence suggesting an internal psychophysics. Perception & Psychophysics, 13, 180–184. doi:10.3758/BF03214124
Nelson, D. L., & Schreiber, T. A. (1992). Word concreteness and word structure as independent determinants of recall. Journal of Memory and Language, 31, 237–260. doi:10.1016/0749-596X(92)90013-N
Nittono, H., Suehiro, M., & Hori, T. (2002). Word imageability and N400 in an incidental memory paradigm. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 44, 219–229. doi:10.1016/S0167-8760(02)00002-8
Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Paivio, A. (1983). The empirical case for dual-coding. In J. Yuille (Ed.), Imagery, memory and cognition: Essays in honor of Allan Paivio (pp. 307–332). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Paivio, A. (1986). Mental representations: A dual coding approach. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory: Retrospect and current status. Canadian Journal of Psychology [Revue canadienne de psychologie], 45, 255–287. doi:10.1037/h0084295
Paivio, A., Yuille, J. C., & Madigan, S. A. (1968). Concreteness, imagery, and meaningfulness values for 925 nouns. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 76(1p2), 1-25. doi:10.1037/h0025327
Plaut, D. C., & Shallice, T. (1991). Effects of word abstractness in a connectionist model of deep dyslexia. In Proceedings of the 13th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 73–78). Chicago: Cognitive Science Society.
Plaut, D. C., & Shallice, T. (1993). Deep dyslexia: A case study of connectionist neuropsychology. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 10, 377–500. doi:10.1080/02643299308253469
Popović Stijačić, M. i Filipović Đurđević, D. (2015). Uspešnost reprodukcije u zavisnosti od broja čula kojima je moguće iskusiti pojam. Primenjena psihologija, 8, 335–352. doi:10.1080/02643299308253469
Poulton, E. C. (1989). Bias in Quantifying Judgements. Hove, UK: Erlbaum.
Pylyshyn, Z. W. (1984). Computation and cognition. Cambridge, MA: MIT press.
Rips, L., & Turnbull, W. (1980). How big is big? Relative and absolute properties in memory. Cognition, 8, 145–174. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(80)90010-4
Reilly, J., Hung, J., & Westbury, C. (2016). Non-arbitrariness in mapping word form to word meaning: Listener sensitivity to formal markers of word concreteness across seven natural languages. Cognitive Science, 41(4), 1071-1089. doi:10.1111/cogs.12361
Schwanenflugel, P. (1991). Why are abstract concepts hard to understand? In P. Schwanenflugel (Ed.), The psychology of word meanings (pp. 223–250). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Schwanenflugel, P. J., & Shoben, E. J. (1983). Differential context effects in the comprehension of abstract and concrete verbal materials. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 9, 82–102. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.9.1.82
Schwanenflugel, P. J., Akin, C., & Luh, W. M. (1992). Context availability and the recall of abstract and concrete words. Memory and Cognition, 20, 96–104. doi:10.3758/BF03208259
Scorolli, C., Binkofski, F., Buccino, G., Nicoletti, R., Riggio, L., & Borghi, A. M. (2011). Abstract and concrete sentences, embodiment, and languages. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 227. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00227
Troche, J., Crutch, S., & Reilly, J. (2014). Clustering, hierarchical organization, and the topography of abstract and concrete nouns. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 360. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00360
Vigliocco, G., Meteyard, L., Andrews, M., & Kousta, S. (2009). Toward a theory of semantic representation. Language and Cognition, 1, 219–247. doi:10.1515/LANGCOG.2009.011
Warriner, A.B., Kuperman, V., & Brysbaert, M. (2013). Norms of valence, arousal, and dominance for 13,915 English lemmas. Behavior Research Methods, 45, 1191–1207. doi:10.3758/s13428-012-0314-x
Wiemer-Hastings, K., Krug, J., & Xu, X. (2001). Imagery, context availability, contextual constraint, and abstractness. In Proceedings of the 23rd annual conference of the cognitive science society (pp. 1134–1139). Erlbaum Mahwah, NJ.
Wilson, M. (1988). MRC Psycholinguistic Database: Machine-usable dictionary, version 2.00. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 20, 6–10. doi:10.3758/BF03202594
Wilson, M. (2002). Six views of embodied cognition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 9, 625–636. doi:10.3758/BF03196322
Yuille, J. C., & Paivio, A. (1969). Abstractness and the recall of connected discourse. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 82, 467–471. doi:10.1037/h0028373
Živanović, J., & Filipović Đurđević, D. (2011). On advantage of seeing TEXT and hearing SPEECH. Psihologija, 44, 61–70. doi:10.2298/PSI1101061Z
Armstrong, L., & Marks, L. E. (1997). Differential effects of stimulus context on perceivedlength: Implications for the horizontal–vertical illusion. Perception & Psychophysics, 59, 1200–1213. doi:10.3758/BF03214208
Baird, J. C. (2014). Sensation and judgment: Complementarity theory of psychophysics. New York, NY: Psychology Press.
Balota, D. A., Yap, M. J., Hutchison, K. A., Cortese, M. J., Kessler, B., Loftis, B., . . . Treiman, R. (2007). The English lexicon project. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 445–459. doi:10.3758/BF03193014
Barber, H. A., Otten, L. J., Kousta, S. T., & Vigliocco, G. (2013). Concreteness in word processing: ERP and behavioral effects in a lexical decision task. Brain and Language, 125, 47–53. doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2013.01.005
Barsalou, L. W. (1999). Perceptual symbol systems. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22, 577–660. doi:10.1017/S0140525X99002149
Barsalou, L. W. (2008). Grounding symbolic operations in the brain's modal systems. In G. R. Semin & E. R. Smith (Eds.), Embodied grounding: Social, cognitive, affective, and neuroscientific approaches (pp. 9–42). New York: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511805837.002
Barsalou, L. W., & Wiemer-Hastings, K. (2005). Situating abstract concepts. In D. Pecher & R. Zwaan (Eds.), Grounding cognition: The role of perception and action in memory, language, and thought (pp. 129–163). New York: Cambridge UniversityPress. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511499968.007
Bleasdale, F. A. (1987). Concreteness-dependent associative priming: Separate lexical organization for concrete and abstract words. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 13, 582–594. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.13.4.582
Borghi, A. M., Flumini, A., Cimatti, F., Marocco, D., & Scorolli, C. (2011). Manipulating objects and telling words: A study on concrete and abstract words acquisition. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 15. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00015
Bransford, J. D., & McCarrell, N. S. (1974). A sketch of a cognitive approach to comprehension: Some thoughts about understanding what it means to comprehend. In W. Weimer & D. Palermo (Eds.), Cognition and the symbolic processes (pp. 189–229). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Brysbaert, M., Warriner, A. B, & Kuperman, V. (2014). Concreteness ratings for 40 thousand generally known English word lemmas. Behavior Research Methods, 46, 904–911. doi:10.3758/s13428-013-0403-5
Brysbaert, M., Stevens, M., De Deyne, S., Voorspoels, W., & Storms, G. (2014). Norms of age of acquisition and concreteness for 30000 Dutch words. Acta Psychologica, 150, 80–84. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2014.04.010
Brysbaert, M., Stevens, M., Mandera, P., & Keuleers, E. (2016). The impact of word prevalence on lexical decision times: Evidence from the Dutch Lexicon Project 2. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance, 42, 441–458. doi:10.1037/xhp0000159
Coltheart, M. (1981). The MRC psycholinguistic database. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 33A, 497–505. doi:10.1080/14640748108400805
Connell, L., & Lynott, D. (2012). Strength of perceptual experience predicts word processing performance better than concreteness or imageability. Cognition, 125, 452–465. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2012.07.010
Crutch, S. J., & Warrington, E. K. (2005). Abstract and concrete concepts have structurally different representational frameworks. Brain, 128, 615–627. doi:10.1093/brain/awh349
Dean, G. M., Dewhurst, S. A., Morris, P. E., & Whittaker, A. (2005). Selective interference with the use of visual images in the symbolic distance paradigm. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 31, 1043–1068. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.31.5.1043
Della Rosa, P. A., Catricalà, E., Vigliocco, G., & Cappa, S. C. (2010). Beyond the abstract–concrete dichotomy: Mode of acquisition, concreteness, imageability, familiarity, age of acquisition, context availability, and abstractness norms for a set of 417 Italian words. Behavior Research Methods, 42, 1042–1048. doi:10.3758/BRM.42.4.1042
Ferrand, L., New, B., Brysbaert, M., Keuleers, E., Bonin, P., Méot, A., Augustinova, M., & Pallier, C. (2010). The French lexicon project: Lexical decision data for 38840 French words and 38840 pseudowords. Behavior Research Methods, 42, 488–496. doi:10.3758/BRM.42.2.488
Filipović Đurđević, D., Karapandžić, J., & Arsenijević Mijalković, J. (2016). Presentation modality interacts with the effect of visual perceptual strength on word processing. In S. Halupka-Rešetar, & S. Martínez-Ferreiro (Eds.), Studies in language and mind (pp. 161–185). Novi Sad, RS: Filozofski fakultet u Novom Sadu.
Filipović Đurđević, D., Popović Stijačić, M., & Karapandžić, J. (2016). A quest for sources of perceptual richness: Several candidates. In S. Halupka-Rešetar, & S. Martínez-Ferreiro (Eds.), Studies in language and mind (pp.187–238). Novi Sad, RS: Filozofski fakultet u Novom Sadu.
Fliessbach, K., Weis, S., Klaver, P., Elger, C. E., & Weber, B. (2006). The effect of word concreteness on recognition memory. Neuroimage, 32, 1413–1421. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.06.007
Fodor, J. A., & Pylyshyn, Z. W. (1988). Connectionism and cognitive architecture: A critical analysis. Cognition, 28, 3–71. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(88)90031-5
Granito, C., Scorolli, C., & Borghi, A. M. (2015). Naming a Lego world. The role of language in the acquisition of abstract concepts. PloSone, 10, e0114615. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0114615
James, C. T. (1975). The role of semantic information in lexical decisions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1, 130–136. doi:10.1037/0096-1523.1.2.130
Kieras, D. (1978). Beyond pictures and words: Alternative information-processing models for imagery effect in verbal memory. Psychological Bulletin, 85, 532–554. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.85.3.532
Kostić, Đ. (1999). Frekvencijski rečnik savremenog srpskog jezika. Tom I–VII. Beograd: Institut za eksperimentalnu fonetiku i patologiju govora i Laboratorija za eksperimentalnu psihologiju Filozofskog fakulteta.
Kounios, J., & Holcomb, P. J. (1994). Concreteness effects in semantic processing: ERP evidence supporting dual-coding theory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20, 804-823. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.20.4.804
Kuperman, V., Estes, Z., Brysbaert, M., & Warriner, A.B. (2014). Emotion and language:Valence and arousal affect word recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143, 1065–1081. doi:10.1037/a0035669
Kuperman, V., Stadthagen-Gonzalez, H., & Brysbaert,M. (2012). Age-of-acquisition ratingsfor 30 thousand English words. Behavior Research Methods, 44, 978–990. doi:10.3758/s13428-012-0210-4
Mandera, P., Keuleers, E., & Brysbaert, M. (2015). How useful are corpus-based methods for extrapolating psycholinguistic variables? Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68, 1623–1642. doi:10.1080/17470218.2014.988735
Mathôt, S., Schreij, D., & Theeuwes, J. (2012). OpenSesame: An open-source, graphical experiment builder for the social sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 44, 314–324. doi:10.3758/s13428-011-0168-7
Moyer, R. S. (1973). Comparing objects in memory: Evidence suggesting an internal psychophysics. Perception & Psychophysics, 13, 180–184. doi:10.3758/BF03214124
Nelson, D. L., & Schreiber, T. A. (1992). Word concreteness and word structure as independent determinants of recall. Journal of Memory and Language, 31, 237–260. doi:10.1016/0749-596X(92)90013-N
Nittono, H., Suehiro, M., & Hori, T. (2002). Word imageability and N400 in an incidental memory paradigm. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 44, 219–229. doi:10.1016/S0167-8760(02)00002-8
Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Paivio, A. (1983). The empirical case for dual-coding. In J. Yuille (Ed.), Imagery, memory and cognition: Essays in honor of Allan Paivio (pp. 307–332). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Paivio, A. (1986). Mental representations: A dual coding approach. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory: Retrospect and current status. Canadian Journal of Psychology [Revue canadienne de psychologie], 45, 255–287. doi:10.1037/h0084295
Paivio, A., Yuille, J. C., & Madigan, S. A. (1968). Concreteness, imagery, and meaningfulness values for 925 nouns. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 76(1p2), 1-25. doi:10.1037/h0025327
Plaut, D. C., & Shallice, T. (1991). Effects of word abstractness in a connectionist model of deep dyslexia. In Proceedings of the 13th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 73–78). Chicago: Cognitive Science Society.
Plaut, D. C., & Shallice, T. (1993). Deep dyslexia: A case study of connectionist neuropsychology. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 10, 377–500. doi:10.1080/02643299308253469
Popović Stijačić, M. i Filipović Đurđević, D. (2015). Uspešnost reprodukcije u zavisnosti od broja čula kojima je moguće iskusiti pojam. Primenjena psihologija, 8, 335–352. doi:10.1080/02643299308253469
Poulton, E. C. (1989). Bias in Quantifying Judgements. Hove, UK: Erlbaum.
Pylyshyn, Z. W. (1984). Computation and cognition. Cambridge, MA: MIT press.
Rips, L., & Turnbull, W. (1980). How big is big? Relative and absolute properties in memory. Cognition, 8, 145–174. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(80)90010-4
Reilly, J., Hung, J., & Westbury, C. (2016). Non-arbitrariness in mapping word form to word meaning: Listener sensitivity to formal markers of word concreteness across seven natural languages. Cognitive Science, 41(4), 1071-1089. doi:10.1111/cogs.12361
Schwanenflugel, P. (1991). Why are abstract concepts hard to understand? In P. Schwanenflugel (Ed.), The psychology of word meanings (pp. 223–250). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Schwanenflugel, P. J., & Shoben, E. J. (1983). Differential context effects in the comprehension of abstract and concrete verbal materials. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 9, 82–102. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.9.1.82
Schwanenflugel, P. J., Akin, C., & Luh, W. M. (1992). Context availability and the recall of abstract and concrete words. Memory and Cognition, 20, 96–104. doi:10.3758/BF03208259
Scorolli, C., Binkofski, F., Buccino, G., Nicoletti, R., Riggio, L., & Borghi, A. M. (2011). Abstract and concrete sentences, embodiment, and languages. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 227. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00227
Troche, J., Crutch, S., & Reilly, J. (2014). Clustering, hierarchical organization, and the topography of abstract and concrete nouns. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 360. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00360
Vigliocco, G., Meteyard, L., Andrews, M., & Kousta, S. (2009). Toward a theory of semantic representation. Language and Cognition, 1, 219–247. doi:10.1515/LANGCOG.2009.011
Warriner, A.B., Kuperman, V., & Brysbaert, M. (2013). Norms of valence, arousal, and dominance for 13,915 English lemmas. Behavior Research Methods, 45, 1191–1207. doi:10.3758/s13428-012-0314-x
Wiemer-Hastings, K., Krug, J., & Xu, X. (2001). Imagery, context availability, contextual constraint, and abstractness. In Proceedings of the 23rd annual conference of the cognitive science society (pp. 1134–1139). Erlbaum Mahwah, NJ.
Wilson, M. (1988). MRC Psycholinguistic Database: Machine-usable dictionary, version 2.00. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 20, 6–10. doi:10.3758/BF03202594
Wilson, M. (2002). Six views of embodied cognition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 9, 625–636. doi:10.3758/BF03196322
Yuille, J. C., & Paivio, A. (1969). Abstractness and the recall of connected discourse. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 82, 467–471. doi:10.1037/h0028373
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