Psychological well-being in students during self-isolation due to the COVID-19 pandemic
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.19090/pp.20.4.427-447Keywords:
conspiracy theories, COVID-19, protective factors, psychological well-being, self-isolationAbstract
The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in lock-down measures being imposed by the government of North Macedonia. Conditions of self-isolation have direct effects on mental health. We researched the possible protective factors of psychological well-being. A total of 510 college students from the biggest university in the country (70% females, Mage = 21.12 years, SD = 1.58) responded to a structured online questionnaire, one month after the country's lock down. Multiple linear regression analysis was performed on hypothesized protective factors of well-being. Results showed that significant predictors of the psychological well-being in conditions of isolation are: perceived social support during self-isolation, self-engagement in physical exercises, perception of being adequately informed about the virus and the ways of protection, and the tendency to hold conspiracy explanations about the virus and pandemic. Perception of medical and restriction of movement measures, together with self-engagement in reading /watching movies, were not significant predictors. In the face of the expected further difficulties with the pandemic, policy creators and the scientific community should develop well-thought out strategies, tailored to different groups, in order to provide appropriate support to people to cope with pandemic, to adequately communicate the necessary medical and restriction measures and all important information about the virus and pandemic, especially in order to manage with the complex role of the conspiracy theories which could undermine confidence in the health system.
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References
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Brooks, S. K., Webster, R. K., Smith, L. E., Woodland, L., Wessely, S., Greenberg, N., & Rubin, G. J. (2020). The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: Rapid review of the evidence. The Lancet, 395(10227), 912–920. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30460-8
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Elmer, T., Mepham, K., & Stadtfeld, C. (2020) Students under lockdown: Comparisons of students’ social networks and mental health before and during the COVID-19 crisis in Switzerland. PLoS ONE, 15(7), e0236337. https://doi.org/ 10.1371/journal.pone.0236337
Goertzel, T. (1994). Belief in conspiracy theories. Political Psychology, 15, 733–744. https://doi.org/10.2307/3791630
Grzesiak-Feldman, M. (2013). The effect of high-anxiety situations on conspiracy thinking. Current Psychology: A Journal for Diverse Perspectives on Diverse Psychological Issues, 32(1), 100–118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-013-9165-6
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Jolley, D., Mari, S., & Douglas, K. M. (2020). Consequences of Conspiracy Theories. In M. Butter, & P. Knight (Eds.), Routledge Handbook of Conspiracy Theories, 1 ed. (pp. 231–241). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429452734-2_7
Jolley, D., & Paterson, J. L. (2020). Pylons ablaze: Examining the role of 5G COVID‐19 conspiracy beliefs and support for violence. British Journal of Social Psychology, 59(3), 628–640. doi:10.1111/bjso.12394
Kecojevic, A., Basch, C. H., Sullivan, M., & Davi, N. K. (2020). The impact of the COVID-19 epidemic on mental health of undergraduate students in New Jersey, cross-sectional study. PLoS ONE, 15(9), e0239696. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239696
Kofta, M., & Sędek, G. (2005). Conspiracy stereotypes of Jews during systemic transformation in Poland. International Journal of Sociology, 35, 40–64. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207659.2005.11043142
Lades, L.K., Laffan, K., Michael Daly, M., & Delaney, L. (2020). Daily emotional well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic, University College Dublin: PublicPolicy.ie http://publicpolicy.ie/papers/daily-emotional-well-being-during-the-COVID-19-pandemic
Lantian, A., Wood, M., & Gjoneska, B. (2020). Personality traits, cognitive styles and worldviews associated with beliefs in conspiracy theories. In M. Butter & P. Knight (Eds.), Routledge Handbook of Conspiracy Theories (pp. 155–167). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429452734
Lauri Korajlija, A., & Jokic-Begic, N. (2020). COVID-19: Concerns and behaviours in Croatia. British Journal of Health Psychology (online first). https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12425
Leman, P. (2007). The born conspiracy. New Scientist (1971), 195, 35–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0262-4079(07)61774-6
Liang, S.-W., Chen, R.-N., Liu, L.-L., Li, X.-G., Chen, J.-B., Tang, S.-Y., & Zhao, J.-B. (2020). The Psychological Impact of the COVID-19 Epidemic on Guangdong College Students: The Difference Between Seeking and Not Seeking Psychological Help. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 2231. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02231
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https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023632
Moscovici, S. (1987). The conspiracy mentality. In C. F. Graumann & S. Moscovici (Eds.), Changing conceptions of conspiracy (pp. 151–169). Springer.
Reavley, N. J., Cvetkovski, S., & Jorm, A.F. (2011). Sources of information about mental health and links to help seeking: findings from the 2007 Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 46, 1267–1274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-010-0301-4
Reis, H. T., Sheldon, K. M., Gable, S. L., Roscoe, J., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). Daily well-being: The role of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(4), 419–435. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167200266002
Reynolds, D. L., Garay, J. R., Deamond, S. L., Moran, M. K., Gold, W., & Styra, R. (2008). Understanding, compliance and psychological impact of the SARS quarantine experience. Epidemiolоgy and Infection, 136, 997–1007. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268807009156
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Rossi, R., Socci, V., Talevi, D., Mensi, S., Niolu, C., Pacitti, F., … Di Lorenzo, G. (2020). COVID-19 Pandemic and Lockdown Measures Impact on Mental Health Among the General Population in Italy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11, 790. doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.04.09.20057802
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. The Guilford Press.
Qiu, J., Shen, B., Zhao, M,. Wang, Z., Xie, B., & Xu, Y. (2020). A nationwide survey of psychological distress among Chinese people in the COVID-19 epidemic: implications and policy recommendations. General Psychiatry, 33, e100213. https://doi:10.1136/gpsych-2020-100213
Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 5–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.5
Seligman, M. E. P. (2018). PERMA and the building blocks of well-being. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 13(4), 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2018.1437466
Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. Free Press.
Son, C., Hegde, S., Smith, A., Wang, X., & Sasangohar, F. (2020). Effects of COVID-19 on College Students’ Mental Health in the United States: Interview Survey Study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 22(9), e21279. https://doi.org/10.2196/21279
Spasovski, O. (2013). The Relation of Basic Psychological Needs, Intrinsic and Extrinsic Life Goals and Collectivism with Subjective Well-Being: A Case in Macedonia. In: Knoop, H-H. & Delle Fave, A. (Eds). Well-Being and Cultures: A Positive Psychology Perspective (pp. 71–81). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4611-4_5
Spasovski, O., & Kenig, N. (2020). Well-being in pandemic_Raw Data_Spasovski_Kenig.sav [Dataset]. figshare. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.12480350.v1
Sundarasen, S., Chinna, K., Kamaludin, K., Nurunnabi, M., Baloch, G. M., Khoshaim, H. B., … Sukayt, A. (2020). Psychological Impact of COVID-19 and Lockdown among University Students in Malaysia: Implications and Policy Recommendations. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(17), 6206. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176206
Swami, V., Voracek, M., Stieger, S., Tran, U. S., & Furnham, A. (2014). Analytic thinking reduces belief in conspiracy theories. Cognition, 133(3), 572–585. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2014.08.006
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Armitage, R., & Nellums, L. B. (2020). COVID-19 and the consequences of isolating the elderly. The Lancet Public Health. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(20)30061-X
Aylie, N. S., Mekonen, M. A., & Mekuria, R. M. (2020). The Psychological Impacts of COVID-19 Pandemic Among University Students in Bench-Sheko Zone, South-west Ethiopia: A Community-based Cross-sectional Study. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 13, 813–821. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S275593
Bale, J. M. (2007). Political paranoia v. political realism: On distinguishing between bogus conspiracy theories and genuine conspiratorial politics. Patterns of Prejudice, 41, 45–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313220601118751
Bierwiaczonek, K., Kunst, J. R., & Pich, O. (2020). Belief in COVID-19 Conspiracy Theories Reduces Social Distancing over Time. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-being (online first). https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12223
Bird, S. T., & Bogart, L. M. (2005). Conspiracy beliefs about HIV/AIDS and birth control among African Americans: implications for the prevention of HIV, other STIs, and unintended pregnancy. Journal of Social Issues, 61, 109–126. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-4537.2005.00396.x
Brooks, S. K., Webster, R. K., Smith, L. E., Woodland, L., Wessely, S., Greenberg, N., & Rubin, G. J. (2020). The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: Rapid review of the evidence. The Lancet, 395(10227), 912–920. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30460-8
Butler, J., & Kern, M. L. (2016). The PERMA-Profiler: A brief multidimensional measure of flourishing. International Journal of Wellbeing, 6(3), 1–48. https://doi:10.5502/ijw.v6i3.526
Cao, W., Fang, Z., Hou, G., Han, M., Xu, X., Dong, J., & Zheng, J. (2020). The psychological impact of the COVID-19 epidemic on college students in China. Psychiatry Research, 287, 112934. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.112934
Chen, X., Zhang, S. X., Jahanshahi, A. A., Alvarez-Risco, A., Dai, H., Li, J., & Ibarra, V. G. (2020). Belief in a COVID-19 Conspiracy Theory as a Predictor of Mental Health and Well-Being of Health Care Workers in Ecuador: Cross-Sectional Survey Study. JMIR Public Health and Surveillance, 6(3), e20737. https://doi:10.2196/20737
Church, A. T., Marcia S., Katigbak, M. S, Locke, K. D., Zhang, H., Shen, J. Jesús Vargas-Flores, J. de J., Ibáñez-Reyes, J. Tanaka-Matsumi, J. Curtis, G. J., Cabrera, H. F., Mastor, K. A., Alvarez, J. M, Ortiz, F. A., Simon, J. R., & Ching, C. M. (2013). Need satisfaction and well-being: Testing self-determination theory in eight cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44, 4, 507–534. https://doi:10.1177/0022022112466590
Deci, E. L., & Ryan R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01
Desclaux, A., Badji, D., Ndione, A. G., & Sow, K. (2017). Accepted monitoring or endured quarantine? Ebola contacts’ perceptions in Senegal. Social Sciences & Medicine, 178, 38–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.02.009
Diener, E., Pressman, S. D., Hunter, J., & Delgadillo‐Chase, D. (2017). If, why, and when subjective well‐being influences health, and future needed research. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 9(2), 133–167. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12090
Douglas, K. M., Sutton, R. M. (2018). Why conspiracy theories matter: A social psychological analysis, European Review of Social Psychology, 29(1), 256–298, https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2018.1537428
Douglas, K. M., Sutton, R. M., Jolley, D., & Wood, M. J. (2015). The social, political, environmental, and health-related consequences of conspiracy theories: Problems and potential solutions. In M. Bilewicz, A., Cichocka, & W. Soral (Eds.), The psychology of conspiracy (pp. 183–200). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
Elmer, T., Mepham, K., & Stadtfeld, C. (2020) Students under lockdown: Comparisons of students’ social networks and mental health before and during the COVID-19 crisis in Switzerland. PLoS ONE, 15(7), e0236337. https://doi.org/ 10.1371/journal.pone.0236337
Goertzel, T. (1994). Belief in conspiracy theories. Political Psychology, 15, 733–744. https://doi.org/10.2307/3791630
Grzesiak-Feldman, M. (2013). The effect of high-anxiety situations on conspiracy thinking. Current Psychology: A Journal for Diverse Perspectives on Diverse Psychological Issues, 32(1), 100–118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-013-9165-6
Groh, D. (1987). The temptation of conspiracy theory, or: Why do bad things happen to good people? Part II: Case studies. In C. F. Graumann & S. Moscovici (Eds.), Changing conceptions of conspiracy (pp. 15–37). Springer.
Hofstadter, R. (1966). The paranoid style in American politics. In R. Hofstadter (Ed.), The paranoid style in American politics and other essays (pp. 3–40). Knopf.
Jolley, D., Mari, S., & Douglas, K. M. (2020). Consequences of Conspiracy Theories. In M. Butter, & P. Knight (Eds.), Routledge Handbook of Conspiracy Theories, 1 ed. (pp. 231–241). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429452734-2_7
Jolley, D., & Paterson, J. L. (2020). Pylons ablaze: Examining the role of 5G COVID‐19 conspiracy beliefs and support for violence. British Journal of Social Psychology, 59(3), 628–640. doi:10.1111/bjso.12394
Kecojevic, A., Basch, C. H., Sullivan, M., & Davi, N. K. (2020). The impact of the COVID-19 epidemic on mental health of undergraduate students in New Jersey, cross-sectional study. PLoS ONE, 15(9), e0239696. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239696
Kofta, M., & Sędek, G. (2005). Conspiracy stereotypes of Jews during systemic transformation in Poland. International Journal of Sociology, 35, 40–64. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207659.2005.11043142
Lades, L.K., Laffan, K., Michael Daly, M., & Delaney, L. (2020). Daily emotional well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic, University College Dublin: PublicPolicy.ie http://publicpolicy.ie/papers/daily-emotional-well-being-during-the-COVID-19-pandemic
Lantian, A., Wood, M., & Gjoneska, B. (2020). Personality traits, cognitive styles and worldviews associated with beliefs in conspiracy theories. In M. Butter & P. Knight (Eds.), Routledge Handbook of Conspiracy Theories (pp. 155–167). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429452734
Lauri Korajlija, A., & Jokic-Begic, N. (2020). COVID-19: Concerns and behaviours in Croatia. British Journal of Health Psychology (online first). https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12425
Leman, P. (2007). The born conspiracy. New Scientist (1971), 195, 35–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0262-4079(07)61774-6
Liang, S.-W., Chen, R.-N., Liu, L.-L., Li, X.-G., Chen, J.-B., Tang, S.-Y., & Zhao, J.-B. (2020). The Psychological Impact of the COVID-19 Epidemic on Guangdong College Students: The Difference Between Seeking and Not Seeking Psychological Help. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 2231. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02231
Li, H. Y., Cao, H., Leung, D. Y. P., & Mak, Y. W. (2020). The Psychological Impacts of a COVID-19 Outbreak on College Students in China: A Longitudinal Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17, 3933. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17113933
Lyubomirsky, S., Sheldon, K. M., & Schkade, D. (2005). Pursuing happiness: The architecture of sustainable change. Review of General Psychology, 9, 111–131. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.9.2.111
Main, A., Zhou, Q., Ma, Y., Luecken, L. J., & Liu, X. (2011). Relations of SARS-related stressors and coping to Chinese college students' psychological adjustment during the 2003 Beijing SARS epidemic. Journal of Counselling Psychology, 58(3), 410–423.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023632
Moscovici, S. (1987). The conspiracy mentality. In C. F. Graumann & S. Moscovici (Eds.), Changing conceptions of conspiracy (pp. 151–169). Springer.
Reavley, N. J., Cvetkovski, S., & Jorm, A.F. (2011). Sources of information about mental health and links to help seeking: findings from the 2007 Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 46, 1267–1274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-010-0301-4
Reis, H. T., Sheldon, K. M., Gable, S. L., Roscoe, J., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). Daily well-being: The role of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(4), 419–435. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167200266002
Reynolds, D. L., Garay, J. R., Deamond, S. L., Moran, M. K., Gold, W., & Styra, R. (2008). Understanding, compliance and psychological impact of the SARS quarantine experience. Epidemiolоgy and Infection, 136, 997–1007. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268807009156
Robinson, D. N. (1989). Aristotle's Psychology. Columbia University Press.
Rossi, R., Socci, V., Talevi, D., Mensi, S., Niolu, C., Pacitti, F., … Di Lorenzo, G. (2020). COVID-19 Pandemic and Lockdown Measures Impact on Mental Health Among the General Population in Italy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11, 790. doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.04.09.20057802
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. The Guilford Press.
Qiu, J., Shen, B., Zhao, M,. Wang, Z., Xie, B., & Xu, Y. (2020). A nationwide survey of psychological distress among Chinese people in the COVID-19 epidemic: implications and policy recommendations. General Psychiatry, 33, e100213. https://doi:10.1136/gpsych-2020-100213
Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 5–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.5
Seligman, M. E. P. (2018). PERMA and the building blocks of well-being. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 13(4), 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2018.1437466
Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. Free Press.
Son, C., Hegde, S., Smith, A., Wang, X., & Sasangohar, F. (2020). Effects of COVID-19 on College Students’ Mental Health in the United States: Interview Survey Study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 22(9), e21279. https://doi.org/10.2196/21279
Spasovski, O. (2013). The Relation of Basic Psychological Needs, Intrinsic and Extrinsic Life Goals and Collectivism with Subjective Well-Being: A Case in Macedonia. In: Knoop, H-H. & Delle Fave, A. (Eds). Well-Being and Cultures: A Positive Psychology Perspective (pp. 71–81). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4611-4_5
Spasovski, O., & Kenig, N. (2020). Well-being in pandemic_Raw Data_Spasovski_Kenig.sav [Dataset]. figshare. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.12480350.v1
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